Development of Insulin using Recombinant DNA Technologies

Development of Insulin using Recombinant DNA Technologies Alistair Jones The use of biotechnology within medicine; diabetes and development of insulin using recombinant DNA technologies Abstract Proteins act as a catalyst for metabolic reactions and responsible for inter and intracellular reactions and signalling events essential for life(Ferrer-Miralles, et al., 2009) Diabetes mellitus is a metabolic disorder with numerous aetiologies; it can be defined by chronic hyperglycaemia which will cause an effect on the metabolism of carbohydrates, fats and proteins. This detrimental effect is from the lack of insulin action, insulin secretion or a combination of them both. Diabetes causes long term damage, dysfunction and failure of a range of major organs. (Consulation, 1999) Through the use of clinical administration missing proteins can be sourced from external sources to reach normal concentrations within the tissular or systemic level. As a number of important studies have all confirmed the importance of the use of strengthened insulin treatment for the reduction and minimisation of long term diabetic complications; it is of great importance and pharmaceutical value that huma n proteins can be sourced (Lindholm, 2002) Through the use of biochemical and genetic knowledge the production of insulin has become available and this industrial scale of therapeutic protein production is the first true application of recombinant DNA technology. (Swartz, 2001, Walsh, 2003) E.coli can be considered as the first microorganism for the production of proteins and is primarily used for genetic modification, cloning and small-scale production for research purposes. Many historical developments within molecular genetics and microbial physiology have been based within this species which has results in a collection of both information and molecular tools. (Ferrer-Miralles, et al., 2009) Discussion Proteins act as a catalyst for metabolic reactions and responsible for inter and intracellular reactions and signalling events essential for life; consequently , a deficiency in the production of polypeptides or production of non-functional of relevant proteins will derive in pathologies which can range from mild to severe (Ferrer-Miralles, et al., 2009). Diabetes mellitus is a metabolic disorder with numerous aetiologies; it can be defined by chronic hyperglycaemia which will cause an effect on the metabolism of carbohydrates, fats and proteins. This detrimental effect is from the lack of insulin action, insulin secretion or a combination of them both. Diabetes causes long term damage, dysfunction and failure of a range of major organs. The characteristics presented with diabetes are weight loss, polyuria, blurring of vision and thirst; the more severe cases will cause ketoacidosis or a non-ketotic hypersmolar state which will lead onto comas, stupor and left untreated death. As the symptoms are often not severe and go undetected for long periods of time, hyperglycaemia can cause pathological and functional changes before a diagnosis can be made. Diabetes causes a multitude of long term affects which include, but not limited to; the failure of the renal system, a two to four times increased risk of cardiovascular disease and potentia l blindness. There are a number of pathogenetic processes which can be involved in the development of diabetes; these will include the processes which destroy the insulin creating beta cells within the pancreas and the creation of a resistance to insulin action ( Alberti, et al., 2006, Consulation, 1999) A combination of metabolic disorders known as metabolic syndrome (MetS) is the combination of hyperglycaemia, hypertension and gout and other cardiovascular risk factors which predict a high risk of developing diabetes. People who have MetS are of the highest risk of the development of type 2 diabetes as it is present up to five times higher within people with this syndrome; this is due to the fact that glucose dysregulation is already present (Alberti, et al., 2006). Type 2 diabetes and atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease can be seen to be of similar ascendants. Inflammation markers have been associated with the development of type 2 diabetes in adults; although this may be part of the autoimmune response they will also reflect the pathogenesis (Schmidt, et al., 1999) Abnormal metabolism of proteins, fats and carbohydrates is caused by the deficient insulin action on target tissues due to the insensitivity or lack of insulin. (Consulation, 1999) Through the use of clinical administration missing proteins can be sourced from external sources to reach normal concentrations within the tissular or systemic level. As a number of important studies have all confirmed the importance of the use of strengthened insulin treatment for the reduction and minimisation of long term diabetic complications; with human insulin being the first line of treatment; it is of great importance and pharmaceutical value that human proteins can be sourced, as this is difficult to do from natural sources (Lindholm, 2002) . We are far past the times of animal sourced insulin’s and we are reaching the turning point in the use of recombinant DNA technologies; which were developed during the late 70’s and uses E.coli as a biological framework for the production of pr oteins of interest through relatively inexpensive procedures. Recombinant DNA technology not only offers the ability to create straightforward proteins but also provides the tools to produce protein molecules with alternative and modified features. (Mariusz, 2011) There are several obstacles in the production of proteins through the use of E.coli however, as it lacks the ability to make post-translational modifications (PTMs) present within the majority of eukaryotic proteins (Ferrer-Miralles, et al., 2009). Recombinant DNA insulin’s are, therefore, gradually being replaced by the more highly efficient insulin analogues (Bell, 2007, Ferrer-Miralles, et al., 2009). Clinically, insulin analogues have been used since the late 1990s, the reason behind insulin modification for subcutaneous injection is to produce absorption properties that better suit the rate of supply from the injection to the physiological need. (Jonassen, et al., 2012) Insulin analogues have the properties of being able to be either rapid acting such as glusine, aspart or lispro or be a long lasting molecule such as glargine and detemir, these can also be used in combination with protamine, these premixed insulin’s provide a more sustained action (Bell, 2007). The combination of biotechnology and the pharmaceutical industry is a product of an evolution within technology and product innovation; which has become a result in advances within science and business practices. The biotechnology based products are thought of as intelligent pharmaceuticals as they often provide new modes and mechanisms in the action and approach to disease control with improved success rate and better patient care. (Evens Kaitin, 2014) Through the use of biochemical and genetic knowledge the production of insulin has become available and this industrial scale of therapeutic protein production is the first true application of recombinant DNA technology. (Swartz, 2001, Walsh, 2003) Although, as insulin is required in such high volumes the product yields of the vast amount of the currently available secretory systems are not currently sufficient enough to make it fully competitive. The current ideas and strategies being used to help improve the efficiency and producti vity of secretion are numerous. (Schmidt, 2004) Cultivation of insulin can be done conveniently within microbial cells such as bacteria and yeast. During the 80’s the FDA approved the use of human insulin produced from recombinant E.coli for the treatment of diabetes, this was the first recombinant protein pharmaceutical to enter the market. Thanks to the versatility and possibilities created through the use of recombinant protein production a large sector of opportunities for pharmaceutical companies opened up. (Ferrer-Miralles, et al., 2009) Since the approval of insulin in 1982 there are now currently more than 200 biotech products available commercially and research has expanded this to over 900 products being tested within clinical trials. Pharmaceuticals are engaged within the development of these products substantially as well as their commercialisation (Evens Kaitin, 2014). This acknowledges the fact that although the microbial systems lack the post translational modifications they are able to efficiently and conve niently produce functional mammalian recombinant proteins. Specific strains of many microbial species have now been created and adapted towards protein production; and the incorporation of yeasts and eukaryotic systems is now in place for protein production. (Ferrer-Miralles, et al., 2009). The use of E.coli expression system is the preferable choice for production of therapeutic proteins, amongst the 151 pharmaceuticals licensed in January 2009 30% where obtained in E.coli, this is due its ability to allow for efficient and economical production of proteins on both a lab scale and within industry (Mariusz, 2011, Swartz, 2001). During insulin production within E.coli the gene is fused with a synthetic fragment encoding for two IgG binding domains which have been derived from staphylococcal protein A. This product is then secreted into the growth medium of E.coli and purified using the IgG affinity. (Moks, et al., 1987) E.coli can be considered as the first microorganism for the production of proteins and is primarily used for genetic modification, cloning and small-scale production for research purposes. Many historical developments within molecular genetics and microbial physiology have been based within this species which has results in a collection of both information and molecular tools. (Ferrer-Miralles, et al., 2009) E.coli flourishes at a temperature of 37Â °C but the proteins are in insoluble form. Fusion protein technology has been able to increase the solubility of over expressed proteins, through the modification of selected amino acid residues allowing for the collection of soluble proteins (Zhang, et al., 1998). Due to the lack of the mechanisms to enable PTMs in bacterial cells protein maturation and disulfide bridges can be, to an extent overcome through the use of protein engineering (Mariusz, 2011). PTMs are crucial in protein folding, stability, processing and activity; therefore, proteins lacking the PMTs may be unstable, insoluble or inactive. However it is possible to synthetically bind PTMs to products, and through genetic engineering of DNA, the amino acid sequence of the polysaccharide can be changed to alter its properties this has been observed within insulin. (Ferrer-Miralles, et al., 2009) For more sophisticated modifications the genetic fusion of two proteins is required (Mariusz, 2011) An increase number of proteins being produced are engineered and tailored to display altered pharmacokinetic profiles and reduce immunogenicity. (Walsh, 2003) Even with the pharmaceutical market progressively producing more protein drugs from non-microbial systems; cell-free protein synthesis and oxidative cytoplasmic folding offers alternatives to the standard recombinant production techniques, it has not effect or impaired the development and progression of products developed within microbial systems proving the robustness of the microbial systems. (Ferrer-Miralles, et al., 2009, Swartz, 2001) In the future Radio Frequency Identification technology will play an important role; however there are some barriers in place for the pharmaceutical supply chain, as there have been concerns raised concerning the potential detrimental effect on the proteins due to the electromagnetic exposure. Alterations have been detected after the RFID however the effect and damages to the protein remain unknown (Acierno, et al., 2010) Works Cited Acierno, R. et al., 2010. Potential effects of RFID systems on biotechnology insulin preparation: A study using HPLC and NMR spectroscopy. Complex Medical Engineering (CME), pp. 198 203. Alberti, K. G. M. M., Zimmet, P. Shaw, J., 2006. Metabolic syndrome—a new world-wide definition. A Consensus Statement from the International Diabetes Federation. Diabetic Medicine, 23(5), pp. 469-480. Bell, D., 2007. Insulin therapy in diabetes mellitus: how can the currently available injectable insulins be most prudently and efficaciously utilised?. Drugs, 67(13), pp. 1813-1827. Consulation, 1999. Definition, diagnosis and classification of diabetes mellitus and its complications. W. H. O., Volume 1. Evens, R. Kaitin, K., 2014. The Biotechnology Innovation Machine—A Source of Intelligent Biopharmaceuticals for the Pharma Industry: Mapping Biotechnology’s Success. [Pre press] submitted to: Clinical Pharmacology Therapeutics, Volume Last excessed, 27/03/2014, p. Avalible from: http://www.nature.com/clpt/journal/vaop/naam/abs/clpt201414a.html. Ferrer-Miralles, N. et al., 2009. Microbial factories for recombinant pharmaceuticals. Microbial Cell Factories , 8(7). Jonassen, I. et al., 2012. Design of the Novel Protraction Mechanism of Insulin Degludec, an Ultra-long-Acting Basal Insulin. [Online] Available at: http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11095-012-0739-z/fulltext.html [Accessed 2014 March 27]. Lindholm, A., 2002. New insulins in the treatment of diabetes mellitus.. Best Pract Res Clin Gastroenterol, 16(3), pp. 475-92. Mariusz, K., 2011. Engineering of Therapeutic Proteins Production in Escherichia coli. Current Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, 12(2), pp. 268-274. Moks, T. et al., 1987. Large–Scale Affinity Purification of Human Insulin–Like Growth Factor I from Culture Medium of Escherichia Coli. Nature Biotechnology, Volume 5, pp. 379-382. Schmidt, F., 2004. Recombinant expression systems in the pharmaceutical industry. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology, 65(4), pp. 363-372. Schmidt, M. et al., 1999. Markers of inflammation and prediction of diabetes mellitus in adults (Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities study): a cohort study. The Lancet, 353(9165), p. 1649–1652. Swartz, J., 2001. Advances in Escherichia coli production of therapeutic proteins. Current Opinion in Biotechnology, 12(2), pp. 195-201. Walsh, G., 2003. Pharmaceutical biotechnology products approved within the European Union. European Journal of Pharmaceutics and Biopharmaceutics, 55(1), pp. 3-10. Zhang, Y. et al., 1998. Expression of Eukaryotic Proteins in Soluble Form in Escherichia coli. Protein Expression and Purification, 12(2), pp. 159-165.

Essay --

Who knew the two most powerful African Americans that influence countless of people in history and wrote their one of many most inspirational work while locked up in jail? Martin Luther King Jr. was incarcerated because the city officials issued a court injunction to prohibit the civil rights marches in Birmingham. Whereas, Malcolm x was arrested for burglary while trying to pick up a stolen watch he had left for repairs at a jewelry shop. The fight for civil right was taken in the 1960's, where racism was a problem. Whites discriminated blacks because they thought they weren't equal to them. This is where Martin Luther King Jr. and Malcom X come in, they are well known African Americans leaders who fought for what they believed, in many different ways. Martin Luther King Jr. are both strong representations of two different approaches to a common goal. Martin Luther King Jr. was a civil rights leader who grew up in a middle class family and was well educated. King was always against violence, even thru his entire ministry. He believed in an integrated society between blacks and whites in one American society based upon the promises of the founding fathers of American that all men were created equal and had the right to life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness. Even though, he was physically and verbally attacked he always stood his ground and never fought with violence. While in jail for 8 days Martin Luther King Jr. compose â€Å"Letter from Birmingham Jail.† The letter was evidently a response to a letter that recently ran in the local newspapers by the Birmingham Clergy. Which had claimed that the protesters were â€Å"unwise and untimely†. However, Dr. King chose to express himself in writing instead of violence, by replying â€Å"Seldom, ... ...res, and plunder, and power.† By reading all these books it built hatred towards the whites and anticipated as a necessarily to fight for the human rights of the African American people. In contrast, to Martin Luther King Jr., Malcolm X decided to fight violence with violence. As a result of his action, know his well known as the ideal civil rights activists for African Americans. Martin Luther King and Malcolm x are both strong representations of two different approaches to a common goal. Martin Luther King Jr. preferred a nonviolence approach to the situation. Whereas, Malcolm X handled racism in a violent approach. However, both man believed African Americans deserved their human rights and equal say. Martin Luther King Jr. believed in an integrated society while Malcolm X wanted African Americans to have their segregated neighborhoods just as good as the whites. Essay -- Who knew the two most powerful African Americans that influence countless of people in history and wrote their one of many most inspirational work while locked up in jail? Martin Luther King Jr. was incarcerated because the city officials issued a court injunction to prohibit the civil rights marches in Birmingham. Whereas, Malcolm x was arrested for burglary while trying to pick up a stolen watch he had left for repairs at a jewelry shop. The fight for civil right was taken in the 1960's, where racism was a problem. Whites discriminated blacks because they thought they weren't equal to them. This is where Martin Luther King Jr. and Malcom X come in, they are well known African Americans leaders who fought for what they believed, in many different ways. Martin Luther King Jr. are both strong representations of two different approaches to a common goal. Martin Luther King Jr. was a civil rights leader who grew up in a middle class family and was well educated. King was always against violence, even thru his entire ministry. He believed in an integrated society between blacks and whites in one American society based upon the promises of the founding fathers of American that all men were created equal and had the right to life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness. Even though, he was physically and verbally attacked he always stood his ground and never fought with violence. While in jail for 8 days Martin Luther King Jr. compose â€Å"Letter from Birmingham Jail.† The letter was evidently a response to a letter that recently ran in the local newspapers by the Birmingham Clergy. Which had claimed that the protesters were â€Å"unwise and untimely†. However, Dr. King chose to express himself in writing instead of violence, by replying â€Å"Seldom, ... ...res, and plunder, and power.† By reading all these books it built hatred towards the whites and anticipated as a necessarily to fight for the human rights of the African American people. In contrast, to Martin Luther King Jr., Malcolm X decided to fight violence with violence. As a result of his action, know his well known as the ideal civil rights activists for African Americans. Martin Luther King and Malcolm x are both strong representations of two different approaches to a common goal. Martin Luther King Jr. preferred a nonviolence approach to the situation. Whereas, Malcolm X handled racism in a violent approach. However, both man believed African Americans deserved their human rights and equal say. Martin Luther King Jr. believed in an integrated society while Malcolm X wanted African Americans to have their segregated neighborhoods just as good as the whites.

The Contemporary International System

The Contemporary International System The structure of the contemporary international system involves many different factors that influence how the world operates today. The international system is defined as the study of the interactions among the various actors that participate in international politics, including states, international organizations, nongovernmental organizations, sub-national entities, and individuals. The study of international relations aims to evaluate how countries interact within the political and social international system.Factors such as, technological change, shifts of national power and various changes in the environment influence today’s system and how we live on a day-to-day basis. History is another factor that must be recognized in the shaping of the world system. Events that occurred in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries have a great impact today, as we are able to make future projections based on historical trends. The operation and stru cture of the international system involves various social and political factors that shape the world we live in today.The shaping of the contemporary system was achieved through the concept of globalization. This idea is often referred to as the â€Å"shrinkage of the world† and has been made possible through the advancement in modern technology. Globalization is the process by which regional economies, societies, and cultures have become integrated through an international network of political ideas. Today, a nation’s technological capability is the main indicator of its power. Technology directly affects a nation’s economic growth though innovation.This growth then allows that country to produce military weapons for protection and could potentially throw off the balance of power between states. Technology and innovation can also determine a nation’s trade capacity, which can limit the amount a country can import and export. A nation with great trade cap abilities will experience international financial flows into their country, thus stimulating economic growth. Technology provides a framework for both the relative and absolute power between states and greatly impacts the structure of the international system.For example, if we evaluate the correlation of power and technology throughout history, we see that the United States and Germany experienced dramatic changes in their global position following the second industrial revolution, just as Great Britain had following the first industrial revolution. These powers have since failed to maintain their place at the forefront of technological innovation, and have faded from the international scene. Countries like Japan have been very technologically advanced for the last 50 years and have moved to the forefront of the international scene.The global scene that was once dominated by the United States, may have a new power due to Japan’s vast technological and innovative capabilities . Businesses have also globalized, as they are now able to interact with companies overseas with the click of a button. Since travel has become â€Å"easy† businesses are now able to meet face to face with their international partners on a regular basis. There are proper customs that people must follow when engaging in foreign business practices. For example, the exchange of business cards is a formal practice in countries like China and Japan.Foreign business associates may see it as a sign of disrespect if one is not educated on the proper customs of that country. The structure and operation of the international system is also influenced by the behaviors of the actors within that system. For centuries, the idea of the â€Å"state† was centered upon the idea of inclusion and exclusion. This idea became the centerpiece of national politics for centuries and is a major reason for conflicts within the system. After the French Revolution these states were formed on the th ree ideologies of realism, liberalism, and idealism.Karen Mingst and Jack Snyder define these ideologies and explain the assumptions behind the weaknesses that lead to misguided policies. Realism instills an appreciation of the role of power but warns that states will suffer if they overreach. The cooperation among states is a way to maximize each individual state’s security and often calls for â€Å"backing† during times of conflict. World War II resembles a realist idea as each state was drawn to fight to maximize its own security. Liberalism identifies the potential for democracies, but also notes that democracies can lead to tyrannies and the threat of a violent collapse.This arose after World War I in response to the inability to control and limit war within the international system. Lastly, Idealism stresses that a state’s values must reinforce any stable political order but recognizes that there is also a potential for conflict. Together these three persp ectives form the core of the contemporary international system. In order to fully understand the contemporary international system, we must first understand the historical trends in the state and international system.International Relations can be traced back to the Peace of Westphalia in 1648 where the modern state system was developed. This instituted the concept of sovereignty, which is defined as absolute and perpetual power invested in a commonwealth. This power does not exist in an individual, but in a state. In this, the leaders are limited by divine law and are â€Å"subject to the laws of God and nature. † This belief is still held today and believers attribute the legitimacy of the state to the consent of the people. After all, the â€Å"people† are the fundamental the source of all political power.In conclusion, the contemporary international system was shaped on the basis of globalization, the behaviors of the actors within the international system, and the evaluation of historical patterns. The world is constantly changing and evolving toward a more connected population. The widespread use of social media and continued advances in technology allow the population to connect with each other as if they were sitting in the same room. As we move toward this new era, we must identify these historical patterns in order to further improve our future international relations.

Arabs vs Jews essays

Arabs vs Jews essays On November 29, 1947, the United Nations voted to divide the Middle Eastern land called Palestine into two independent nations, one Arab and one Jewish. On May 14, 1948, a new nation was born: Israel. The Jews of Israel and the world celebrated with joy and gladness, because for over two thousand years, they had hoped to return to the land of their heritage. (Silverman, 1) However with Jews from all around the world returning to Israel, the Arabs residing in this land were forced into exile. The rebirth of Israel marked the beginning of conflict, violence, and peace treaties between the Arabs and the Jews of the Middle East. Tensions between Jews and Arabs have been present since biblical times in the Middle East. In 132 AD, when Israel was under Roman rule, the Jews revolted and fought for independence. In 135 AD the Romans crushed the Jewish revolt and expelled nearly all of the Jews of Israel. The Romans then renamed Israel-Palestine, so as to remove any connection between the land and the Jewish people. (Tessler, 12) The Jews never forgot their homeland, and prayed three times a day to return to Israel and to the holy city of Jerusalem. In the 7th century, a new religion, Islam, arose in the Middle East. The Muslim Arabs conquered Palestine from the Byzantines and began to settle the land. They built the Dome of the Rock and the Al-Aksa mosque in Jerusalem, where they believed Prophet Muhammad ascended into heaven to receive parts of the Quran. (Goldschmidt, 46) During the early 1500s, Palestine was captured and put under Turkish rule. During the First World War, the Turkish government placed severe restrictions on Jewish daily life, because the Turks believed that the Jews were plotting with their enemies. In December of 1917, the British army under the command of General Edmund Allenby defeated the Turks and captured Palestine. Four hundred years of Turkish rule had ended. Just six weeks before the annex of Turk...

Family History and Meaning of the Surname Richardson

Family History and Meaning of the Surname Richardson Richardson is a patronymic name meaning son of Richard. The given name Richard is Germanic in origin and means powerful and brave, composed of the elements ric,  meaning power and hard, meaning hardy or brave. Example: Richard the Lion Hearted Richardson is the 76th most popular surname in the United States. Richardson is also popular in England, coming in as the 55th most common surname. Alternate Surname Spellings:  Richards, Richardsen, Richerdson Famous People With the Surname Richardson Natasha Richardson - British actress.Henry Hobson Richardson - American architect.Calvin Richardson - American RB music artist. Where Is the Richardson  Surname Most Common? The Richardson  surname is most prevalent in the United States, according to surname distribution information from  Forebears, where it ranks as the 76th most common surname in the country. Within the U.S., Richardson is found most frequently in South Carolina, North Carolina, Maryland, Virginia, Indiana, Vermont and Alabama. Richardson is also a very common surname in England (64th) and Australia (76th). Surname distribution maps from  WorldNames PublicProfiler  show that Richardson is especially common in the northern part of England, particularly in the counties of Northumberland and Durham, as well as in York. Richardson is also especially common in Australia (particularly Tasmania and Northern Territory) and New Zealand (Clutha, Gore, and Grey districts). Concerning the Richardson Family Crest... Contrary to what you may hear, there is no such thing as a Richardson traditional family crest or coat of arms for the Richardson surname.  Coats of arms are granted to individuals, not families, and may rightfully be used only by the uninterrupted male-line descendants of the person to whom the coat of arms was originally granted. Connecting With the World of Richardson Individuals with the Richardson surname, and variants such as Richards, Richarson, Richerson, Riches, Richeson, Richison, Ritchardson, Ritcharson, Ritcheson, are invited to join  this project to  work together to find their common heritage through DNA testing and sharing of information. There is a free message board is focused on descendants of Richardson ancestors around the world available through Genology.com. This allows you to search the Richardson forum for posts about your Richardson ancestors, or join the forum and post your own queries.   Similar to Geonology.com, FamilySearch.com allows you to explore over 12  million  results from digitized  historical records and lineage-linked family trees related to the Richardson surname on their free website hosted by the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. One can also join a free mailing list designed for researchers of the Richardson surname and its variations. This mailing list includes subscription details and searchable archives of past messages. GeneaNet.org has compiled archival records, family trees, and other resources for individuals with the Richardson surname, with a concentration on records and families from France and other European countries. For genealogy records and links to genealogical and historical records for individuals with the Richardson surname you can visit the comprehesive website Richardson page at Genealogy Today. Perhaps the most well-known genealogy page is Ancestory.com, where you can explore over 11 million digitized records and database entries, including census records, passenger lists, military records, land deeds, probates, wills and other records for the Richardson surname on the subscription-based website, Ancestry.com. References: Surname Meanings Origins Cottle, Basil.  Penguin Dictionary of Surnames. Baltimore, MD: Penguin Books, 1967. Dorward, David.  Scottish Surnames. Collins Celtic (Pocket edition), 1998. Fucilla, Joseph.  Our Italian Surnames. Genealogical Publishing Company, 2003. Hanks, Patrick and Flavia Hodges.  A Dictionary of Surnames. Oxford University Press, 1989. Hanks, Patrick.  Dictionary of American Family Names. Oxford University Press, 2003. Reaney, P.H.  A Dictionary of English Surnames. Oxford University Press, 1997. Smith, Elsdon C.  American Surnames. Genealogical Publishing Company, 1997.

Small group communication Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Small group communication - Essay Example An effective small group that would guarantee efficient results is one that has established clear roles for the small group members. Firstly, there should be a task leader. A task leader is probably one of the key people within the small group as he controls the direction of the group and initiates debate points. He is resourceful enough to know when a point has been exhausted and also has the ability to come up with debatable points whose answers contribute to the overall discussion. The other critical aspect for a small group is communication. The members of the small group should understand each other they should be able to discern information provided by other members. This ensures that no single point escapes. In totality, this contributes to a healthy group discussion and one that maximizes on the resourcefulness of all the members. Looking through the definition forwarded by the text it is possible to identify our class groups as small groups. A project team, as it was constit uted to achieve a particular goal which was discussion of various academic topics. The intention of the project team was to improve our functionality in groups as well as integrate variable knowledge as presented by various group members. However, the only qualification as a small group only lay in the numbers and communication interactions. This was the only congruent aspect as our small group lacked a communication pattern. There were no ground rules that ensured the discussions remained focused on the subject matter. This was largely due to lack of a task leader. A task leader is defined as the person who emerges as the most qualified to lead a specific small group dealing with a particular problem (Cragan, Wright and Kasch 39). This type of a person lacked in our small group. The result was an uncoordinated group that engaged in debates far from the intended topics. It would take a long time to have the group members focus again on the topic of discussion. The greatest problem was that every time one of the group members seemed to take control of the group he was fast criticized and this again translated to a disorderly discussion. The text identifies that task leaders are not necessarily known at the inception of the

Outsourcing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4750 words

Outsourcing - Essay Example This paper shall begin by defining outsourcing and then describing the different forms of outsourcing. Next it shall outline why organizations opt to outsource and how they select what to or not to outsource. The paper shall then dwell on the advantages and disadvantages of outsourcing from two perspectives: from the point of view of a company and from the point of view of our country, the United States of America. 2.0. Definition of outsourcing Outsourcing has been defined differently by different authors. Overby (1) defines it as the farming out of services to a third party and Lee (323) as the process of turning over part or all of an organization’s functions to external service provider(s). Everett (1) defines outsourcing is a leveraged business model that allows flexible use of the most appropriate resources for a particular project whereas Strassman (51) views it from a completely different angle and defines outsourcing as the distribution of labor and knowledge through specialization. Nevertheless, all these authors concur that outsourcing is deployed for purpose of gaining economic, technological and strategic benefits. Often, people confuse outsourcing with offshoring, which should not be the case. Offshoring, as we shall see in the other sections of this paper is a subset of outsourcing. 3.0. Types of outsourcing There are several types of outsourcing depending on the classification system used. Knowing the classification system and type of outsourcing vendor aides the organization in devising rules of engagement, deliverables and service level agreements. 3.1. Think 180 outsourcing classification The first form of classification system that we... The paper throws light on outsourcing. Overby defines it as the farming out of services to a third party and Lee as the process of turning over part or all of an organization’s functions to external service provider(s). Everett defines outsourcing is a leveraged business model that allows flexible use of the most appropriate resources for a particular project whereas Strassman views it from a completely different angle and defines outsourcing as the distribution of labor and knowledge through specialization. Nevertheless, all these authors concur that outsourcing is deployed for purpose of gaining economic, technological and strategic benefits. Often, people confuse outsourcing with offshoring, which should not be the case. Offshoring, as we shall see in the other sections of this paper is a subset of outsourcing. There are several types of outsourcing depending on the classification system used. Knowing the classification system and type of outsourcing vendor aides the organi zation in devising rules of engagement, deliverables and service level agreements. The first form of classification system that we shall look at has been developed by a firm called Think180. The former looks at the level to which the outsourced function is integrated with company operations, and whether the vendor participates in the meetings and decisions of the business while the latter looks at the entity that receives the results of the outsourced function.